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内容提要
罗止园(1879—1953)名文杰,字亦才,又号末若。山东德州人。近代医学家、画家。幼习儒,兼好医学、绘画。1907年中医宫考试合格,录为北洋陆军第五镇军医,后曾任军政职务。1926年退隐后定居北京,以行医、鬻画为生。学医初受业子章丘邵敬甫,专务中医,后又从姜子全、丁福保学习西医,1938年任华北国医学院教授,建国后曾参与组织北京市中医学会。行医中西法并用,重视中医理论,不拘旧说,每多新见。著有《止园医话》、《止园医话续集》,备录五十馀年临证医案及治疗心得。于绘画亦有造诣,1935年曾任北平美术学院国画系教授。且精版本目录之学。
生理学合参卷—我们这个人,是怎么样能活着呢?他全身的器官,是怎么个样子呢?讲这个道理的书,西医学叫做生理,中医叫做《内经》、《难经》。可是中医缺乏解剖学,所以它那书上说的话,多有不对的。然经过数千年的研究和理想,它那一种微妙不可思议的理论,也真能发明了人类的生活原理。我们研讨医理,如能切实的把中西医的生理学,.平心静气地参照一下子,取其可取,而弃其可弃,那自然是医学的一个大进步了。现在我把中西医的生理学,简单说一说,这是为初学医的立论,所以非常浅显,欲求深造,当然以此为初步了。
一、西医生理学脑脑子分大脑、小脑二部,大脑主知觉,比如痛啦痒啦,一有刺激,它就能知道。小脑主运动,比如手足的运动,身体的运转,全是小脑的机能,大脑的位置在头前,小脑的位置在头后。小脑之下,紧接着就是延髓,在人之脖项后面。主管着呼吸及脑与脊髓之传达作用,这是很重要的地方。延髓之下就接着脊髓,系在人之脊骨内包藏着。它能受脑的命令,运动全身,并能传达全身的知觉,到了脑子里,叫它知晓,所谓反射作用是也。人身上无有一处无神经系的,好比电线一样,它的总机关,就是脑子、延髓、脊髓,所以这三种东西,是全身神经系的根本。
血液血液是养人的要素,好比人是一个花草,血液就是它的汁水。若是有一枝一叶,汁水于了,这一枝一叶,马上就要出毛病。若是全身的汁水干了,这花草就会死的。人也是如此,所以血脉一不流通,马上就不行啊!血之来源,是从吾人所饮食的东西造成的。因此欲讲血之来源,不得不连同肠胃的生理,大概说一说。凡吾人当食物之时,必与口内之唾液混合,此液为亚尔加里性作用,可变化淀粉质而为糖分。到了胃内,复有胃液作用,胃液的成份,为盐酸与配普新。其中的盐酸,能溶解蛋白质,变为配普新。(小肠之经过颇长,是为吸收之主部,且肠壁具有绒毛及皱壁。故收缩时能将乳糜等管压迫,使乳糜向乳糜管内输送,大肠亦有吸收机能。)凡食由胃入十二指肠,此时即有肠液、膵液、胆汁为消化作用。因唾液、胃液之作用,只能化淀粉质及蛋白质,而不能化脂肪及其它物质,肠之粘膜及膵(胰腺的旧称)分泌汁液,能破碎脂肪球为小分子。胆汁可化胃不能消化之物,且能使消化之物,变为透明体至肠内由粘膜之毛细血管吸收,渐渐汇集于门静脉,入肝脏,造成血液。(肝脏能分泌胆汁,制造肝糖,又能提净血液中之毒质,使已成乳糜佯之血液,化为赤色,而入于心脏。)肝为人身造血机关,凡食物由乳糜管集合入门脉,再由门脉入肝脏,再由肝脏毛细管,通过之际,受肝细胞作用(肝脏含有多量之铁)即变为红色血液。从肝静脉至下大静脉放流而至心脏。(肝脏能将食物化为洁净之血液,故食物若含毒质,到此则能滤清将毒汁送回胆囊。)由肠壁吸收之营养质,其输送之道路有二:一由门脉经肝脏入大静脉中以达于心脏;一经肠淋巴管,汇集于胸管,混入血液中,以达于心脏。(水盐类糖分及蛋白质,由门脉输送之,脂肪类则由肠淋巴管输送之。)血之周流全身,系由心脏左边(左心室,发出来,先入大动脉。动脉血是鲜红的,等着周遍全身,血的功用就乏了,好象已经烧残的煤炭,火力是不中用了。此时的血已经到了极细的动脉毛细血管(乎足指尖,的尖端。由此尖端,就过入静脉毛细血管中,渐渐往回流,又总汇到大静脉血管。所以,静脉血管又叫做回血管。此时的血,全成了暗紫色,即由此静脉而回到心脏的右半边内(右心房之内),这就叫做大循环。血既回到了心的右边(右心房、,再由右边出来,流到肺动脉血管里头去。此时血皆废料,色皆暗紫。血既到了肺中,就利用肺的呼吸,呼出碳气,吸入氧气,自然把废料排出去,又添上新料(氧气)。又成了鲜红的有用之血了,于是乎再由肺静脉管,回到了心脏的左心房,再至左心室。而后再周流全身,这就叫做肺循环。(中医书说营卫交会于手太阴肺,即是说的血由心脏至肺脏循环的道理,此种研究,中西竞能相合,互证自明。)心脏的机能,系左右收缩和开张,它能叫血液从一边收进来,一边喷出去,好象人握拳一样,一紧一松,好象一个吸水筒,一边吸,一边喷。
人之一生,一时也不能停止,若是心脏一停止,血就不流动,人也就死;了。所以心脏是人全身的主宰,脑子神经虽灵;若是离了血之荣养,也是不中用的。
血的用处最大:1.可以滋养全身。2,可以发热力,温暖身体。3,可以抵抗病毒。4.凡人之一切生活现象,全仗着它的作用。
血有赤血球、白血球,混合在一起。可是白血球可以自由出入于血管壁,所以身体无论何部,有了异状,例如病菌侵入,白血球就去包围它,与它抵抗,非把它排除去了不可,若是抵抗不了,白血球受了伤,那么人也就觉着受不了病之缠绕了。中医说血为营,气为卫,营行脉中,卫行脉外,正是这个道理,可以细参。(血为营,不是说营就是血的代名词,气为卫,也不是说卫就是气的代名词。此二字乃指气血以外之脂肪而言,因为此物在脉中脉外与气血同行,有微妙的关系故也。)皮肤人身上第一层皮名表皮,这个表皮,无神经,刺之也不痛(俗称油皮)。第二层名真皮,这个皮内有神经,有血管,所以刺之觉疼,破了就出血,又有汗腺,所以身上热度太高了,它就出汗,排出废物,可以放散体温。又有皮脂腺,可以时常出油,保护皮肤,又有毛囊,消化器消化器可分为五部:1.口腔。2,咽喉。3.食道。4,胃。5.肠。兹将胃和肠的生理,大概说一说。
胃之上口名贲门,下口名幽门,幽门紧接着十二指肠。胃里头有一种液体,所以消化食物用的叫做胃液,是合百弗圣游离盐酸及水所成的。
肠之构造,和胃是一样的,由三膜而成。其外层为浆液膜,中层为筋织膜,内层为粘膜。粘膜又有很多的绒毛和小腺,所以能吸收食物之精华,血液来源之第一步也。肠的上部名十二脂肠(近接胃之下口),再下则名小肠,再下则名大肠,(大肠和小肠接连的地方有一小突起,名曰盲肠。它的位置正当着吾人之右少腹下部,即右肠窝,所以盲肠痛最易诊断。又回肠、盲肠办所以防食物逆流于小肠者。)再下则名直肠,再下则名肛门。
我们吃的东西,无论软硬,皆在口内先嚼碎,和唾涎混合咽下。到了胃里,胃液就分泌出来,胃筋也蠕动起来,两三点钟的工夫,就把食物消化成糜粥的样子,然后由幽门送入十二指肠,再由十二脂肠到小肠。经过睁液、胆汁、肠液的化合,把糜粥样的东西,化成乳糜,然后由肠内之粘膜吸收,分别运入乳糜管及淋巴管内(食物在小肠内吸收最多)。这时候消化不了的东西,就由小肠再下,经过盲肠办,借着肠蠕动的力量,而入于大肠。食物在大肠内尚有一部分能吸收,此后再残留下的渣滓,就完全成了废料,水分也少了,渐渐的成为固质,由肛门排泻出去,所谓粪便是也。
循环器循环器即前讲之血液,参看自明。
呼吸器呼吸器人何以能呼吸,固然是呼吸神经的作用,然呼吸的器官,可不是只依赖呼吸神经这一样,所以肺,及肋间筋、横膈膜,必须略讲一讲。
1.肺脏在人之胸间,由左右二部而成,包被于心脏。由大气管而至气管枝,愈分管愈细,到尽头为盲管‘不透气)。凡人之呼吸即借着胸廓的一张一弛,而肺.就活动起来了,吐故纳新,与心脏的活动相辅而行。西医说,成人一分钟,凡呼吸十九次。中医说,一呼一吸,谓之一息,是相合的。
2.肋间筋分内外两层,它的生理,是彼此反对的。它的外层能将肋骨(俗名肋条骨)举上,使胸廓扩大。内层能将肋骨牵下,使胸廓缩小。所以这样一上一下才能让肺脏容易活动,而营呼吸的工作。
3,横膈膜横亘于肺之下方,平时穹窿凸于上,若收缩时,则凹下,而增加胸廓之深。横膈膜与肋间筋之一张一弛,是呼吸运动的一定之动作,它与肺之活动,有密切的关系。肺呼吸,也叫外呼吸,因身体内不断的摄取空气中之酸素,又不断的将体内由酸化分解,所生之碳酸及水蒸气,向空气中排出,此机能叫做外呼吸。
组织呼吸也叫内呼吸,与外呼吸之气体交换作用正相反。何以呢?因为人身上诸组织由血液中赤血球取出酸素,因此而起燃烧作用。消费酸素,发生碳酸,再送回于血液,这就叫内呼吸。因此而动脉血变为静脉血,成了暗紫色。
皮肤呼吸,也叫作不感性呼吸,是由人周身上之皮肤(毛孔,排泻少量之碳酸,且能摄取少量之酸素。但于发汗时,则其排泻与摄取之量增加。(光绪三十三年,余应陆军部检阅军医考试,论病者发热恶寒之原理。余曾以中医肺主皮毛之说与此理互相阐明,是时中医之有西医知识者尚少,故得上考与五镇正医官陆叔丞君同列(九十五分)前茅,虽浅陋答案不足以质高明,然回忆当年,弥觉趣味横生也。)人体温度,平均为摄氏表(检温器)三十六度半。脉搏,一分间(成年人)约七八十动,小孩较快。若按中医说,脉是一息四、五至的为无病。若是太快,就是热,太慢就是寒,若太无力,就是虚,有力就是实。(此应参看脉学。)排泻器排泻器将体内之废物,放送于体外,就叫作排泻。这一类器官,就叫作排泻器。?这一类的器官,约分三种,即1.肺脏,2.皮肤,3.泌尿器。一二两项,前已说明,兹再略谈谈泌尿器,因为泌尿器是专营此排泻的啊(消化器参照)。
泌尿器分为肾脏、输尿管、膀胱及尿道四部:①肾脏(俗称腰子)肾脏系两个,蚕豆状,相对位于上部腰椎之左右两侧。它的凹部,叫作肾盂。肾内通过动脉和静脉,好比一个滤斗一样。肾内有很多的细尿管,总归二个大输尿管,它能把人身上无用的水及血中的废物,由此处滤出,送于输尿管,而达于膀胱,再由尿道排泻于体外,所谓尿是也。
②膀胱膀胱有三口,其二口通左右二输尿管,其一口通尿道。膀胱接尿道处,有括约肌环绕之,以资启闭,而司排泻尿液。中医书谓膀胱有下口无上口,一由于缺乏解剖,二由于专讲无形的气化。虽然是错误,可是它那消息阴阳的道理,是极其微妙,不可不知。
神经系神经系(已详前论脑)五官器五官器分五种,略述于下:1,触觉器皮肤内有神经,所以一触外物,它就能报告给脑子,而能知其何如。
2.嗅觉器鼻内粘膜有多数之嗅神经,所以外界香臭,一入鼻内,既能知之。
3,味觉器舌内含有多数之舌咽神经,故食物入口,而能辨别其何味也。
4.视觉器眼球内含视神经,故一遇外界之物映入,既能知之。眼球又有虹彩,能令昵孔散大或缩小。
5,听觉器耳之极深处,有听神经,故外音送入鼓膜,就可以次传到听神经,而知之也。
生殖器生殖器(从略)西医讲的生理,非常详细,除以上诸器官外,尚有细胞、组织、骨骼、筋肉、腺、办膜、体温等重要生理,必须详参。本篇限于篇幅,只讲大概,简略太甚,不足以言医学也。
二、中医生理学中医讲的生理,是以五脏六腑相分配的。讲中医的医理,总离不了阴阳二字。这两个字,含有微妙的至理,万不可加以怀疑。
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内容提要
罗止园(1879—1953)名文杰,字亦才,又号末若。山东德州人。近代医学家、画家。幼习儒,兼好医学、绘画。1907年中医宫考试合格,录为北洋陆军第五镇军医,后曾任军政职务。1926年退隐后定居北京,以行医、鬻画为生。学医初受业子章丘邵敬甫,专务中医,后又从姜子全、丁福保学习西医,1938年任华北国医学院教授,建国后曾参与组织北京市中医学会。行医中西法并用,重视中医理论,不拘旧说,每多新见。著有《止园医话》、《止园医话续集》,备录五十馀年临证医案及治疗心得。于绘画亦有造诣,1935年曾任北平美术学院国画系教授。且精版本目录之学。
生理学合参卷——我们这个人,是怎么样能活着呢?他全身的器官,是怎么个样子呢?讲这个道理的书,西医学叫做生理,中医叫做《内经》、《难经》。可是中医缺乏解剖学,所以它那书上说的话,多有不对的。然经过数千年的研究和理想,它那一种微妙不可思议的理论,也真能发明了人类的生活原理。我们研讨医理,如能切实的把中西医的生理学,.平心静气地参照一下子,取其可取,而弃其可弃,那自然是医学的一个大进步了。现在我把中西医的生理学,简单说一说,这是为初学医的立论,所以非常浅显,欲求深造,当然以此为初步了。
一、西医生理学脑脑子分大脑、小脑二部,大脑主知觉,比如痛啦痒啦,一有刺激,它就能知道。小脑主运动,比如手足的运动,身体的运转,全是小脑的机能,大脑的位置在头前,小脑的位置在头后。小脑之下,紧接着就是延髓,在人之脖项后面。主管着呼吸及脑与脊髓之传达作用,这是很重要的地方。延髓之下就接着脊髓,系在人之脊骨内包藏着。它能受脑的命令,运动全身,并能传达全身的知觉,到了脑子里,叫它知晓,所谓反射作用是也。人身上无有一处无神经系的,好比电线一样,它的总机关,就是脑子、延髓、脊髓,所以这三种东西,是全身神经系的根本。
血液血液是养人的要素,好比人是一个花草,血液就是它的汁水。若是有一枝一叶,汁水于了,这一枝一叶,马上就要出毛病。若是全身的汁水干了,这花草就会死的。人也是如此,所以血脉一不流通,马上就不行啊!血之来源,是从吾人所饮食的东西造成的。因此欲讲血之来源,不得不连同肠胃的生理,大概说一说。凡吾人当食物之时,必与口内之唾液混合,此液为亚尔加里性作用,可变化淀粉质而为糖分。到了胃内,复有胃液作用,胃液的成份,为盐酸与配普新。其中的盐酸,能溶解蛋白质,变为配普新。(小肠之经过颇长,是为吸收之主部,且肠壁具有绒毛及皱壁。故收缩时能将乳糜等管压迫,使乳糜向乳糜管内输送,大肠亦有吸收机能。)凡食由胃入十二指肠,此时即有肠液、膵液、胆汁为消化作用。因唾液、胃液之作用,只能化淀粉质及蛋白质,而不能化脂肪及其它物质,肠之粘膜及膵(胰腺的旧称)分泌汁液,能破碎脂肪球为小分子。胆汁可化胃不能消化之物,且能使消化之物,变为透明体至肠内由粘膜之毛细血管吸收,渐渐汇集于门静脉,入肝脏,造成血液。(肝脏能分泌胆汁,制造肝糖,又能提净血液中之毒质,使已成乳糜佯之血液,化为赤色,而入于心脏。)肝为人身造血机关,凡食物由乳糜管集合入门脉,再由门脉入肝脏,再由肝脏毛细管,通过之际,受肝细胞作用(肝脏含有多量之铁)即变为红色血液。从肝静脉至下大静脉放流而至心脏。(肝脏能将食物化为洁净之血液,故食物若含毒质,到此则能滤清将毒汁送回胆囊。)由肠壁吸收之营养质,其输送之道路有二:一由门脉经肝脏入大静脉中以达于心脏;一经肠淋巴管,汇集于胸管,混入血液中,以达于心脏。(水盐类糖分及蛋白质,由门脉输送之,脂肪类则由肠淋巴管输送之。)血之周流全身,系由心脏左边(左心室,发出来,先入大动脉。动脉血是鲜红的,等着周遍全身,血的功用就乏了,好象已经烧残的煤炭,火力是不中用了。此时的血已经到了极细的动脉毛细血管(乎足指尖,的尖端。由此尖端,就过入静脉毛细血管中,渐渐往回流,又总汇到大静脉血管。所以,静脉血管又叫做回血管。此时的血,全成了暗紫色,即由此静脉而回到心脏的右半边内(右心房之内),这就叫做大循环。血既回到了心的右边(右心房、,再由右边出来,流到肺动脉血管里头去。此时血皆废料,色皆暗紫。血既到了肺中,就利用肺的呼吸,呼出碳气,吸入氧气,自然把废料排出去,又添上新料(氧气)。又成了鲜红的有用之血了,于是乎再由肺静脉管,回到了心脏的左心房,再至左心室。而后再周流全身,这就叫做肺循环。(中医书说营卫交会于手太阴肺,即是说的血由心脏至肺脏循环的道理,此种研究,中西竞能相合,互证自明。)心脏的机能,系左右收缩和开张,它能叫血液从一边收进来,一边喷出去,好象人握拳一样,一紧一松,好象一个吸水筒,一边吸,一边喷。
人之一生,一时也不能停止,若是心脏一停止,血就不流动,人也就死;了。所以心脏是人全身的主宰,脑子神经虽灵;若是离了血之荣养,也是不中用的。
血的用处最大:1.可以滋养全身。2,可以发热力,温暖身体。3,可以抵抗病毒。4.凡人之一切生活现象,全仗着它的作用。
血有赤血球、白血球,混合在一起。可是白血球可以自由出入于血管壁,所以身体无论何部,有了异状,例如病菌侵入,白血球就去包围它,与它抵抗,非把它排除去了不可,若是抵抗不了,白血球受了伤,那么人也就觉着受不了病之缠绕了。中医说血为营,气为卫,营行脉中,卫行脉外,正是这个道理,可以细参。(血为营,不是说营就是血的代名词,气为卫,也不是说卫就是气的代名词。此二字乃指气血以外之脂肪而言,因为此物在脉中脉外与气血同行,有微妙的关系故也。)皮肤人身上第一层皮名表皮,这个表皮,无神经,刺之也不痛(俗称油皮)。第二层名真皮,这个皮内有神经,有血管,所以刺之觉疼,破了就出血,又有汗腺,所以身上热度太高了,它就出汗,排出废物,可以放散体温。又有皮脂腺,可以时常出油,保护皮肤,又有毛囊,消化器消化器可分为五部:1.口腔。2,咽喉。3.食道。4,胃。5.肠。兹将胃和肠的生理,大概说一说。
胃之上口名贲门,下口名幽门,幽门紧接着十二指肠。胃里头有一种液体,所以消化食物用的叫做胃液,是合百弗圣游离盐酸及水所成的。
肠之构造,和胃是一样的,由三膜而成。其外层为浆液膜,中层为筋织膜,内层为粘膜。粘膜又有很多的绒毛和小腺,所以能吸收食物之精华,血液来源之第一步也。肠的上部名十二脂肠(近接胃之下口),再下则名小肠,再下则名大肠,(大肠和小肠接连的地方有一小突起,名曰盲肠。它的位置正当着吾人之右少腹下部,即右肠窝,所以盲肠痛最易诊断。又回肠、盲肠办所以防食物逆流于小肠者。)再下则名直肠,再下则名肛门。
我们吃的东西,无论软硬,皆在口内先嚼碎,和唾涎混合咽下。到了胃里,胃液就分泌出来,胃筋也蠕动起来,两三点钟的工夫,就把食物消化成糜粥的样子,然后由幽门送入十二指肠,再由十二脂肠到小肠。经过睁液、胆汁、肠液的化合,把糜粥样的东西,化成乳糜,然后由肠内之粘膜吸收,分别运入乳糜管及淋巴管内(食物在小肠内吸收最多)。这时候消化不了的东西,就由小肠再下,经过盲肠办,借着肠蠕动的力量,而入于大肠。食物在大肠内尚有一部分能吸收,此后再残留下的渣滓,就完全成了废料,水分也少了,渐渐的成为固质,由肛门排泻出去,所谓粪便是也。
循环器循环器即前讲之血液,参看自明。
呼吸器呼吸器人何以能呼吸,固然是呼吸神经的作用,然呼吸的器官,可不是只依赖呼吸神经这一样,所以肺,及肋间筋、横膈膜,必须略讲一讲。
1.肺脏在人之胸间,由左右二部而成,包被于心脏。由大气管而至气管枝,愈分管愈细,到尽头为盲管‘不透气)。凡人之呼吸即借着胸廓的一张一弛,而肺.就活动起来了,吐故纳新,与心脏的活动相辅而行。西医说,成人一分钟,凡呼吸十九次。中医说,一呼一吸,谓之一息,是相合的。
2.肋间筋分内外两层,它的生理,是彼此反对的。它的外层能将肋骨(俗名肋条骨)举上,使胸廓扩大。内层能将肋骨牵下,使胸廓缩小。所以这样一上一下才能让肺脏容易活动,而营呼吸的工作。
3,横膈膜横亘于肺之下方,平时穹窿凸于上,若收缩时,则凹下,而增加胸廓之深。横膈膜与肋间筋之一张一弛,是呼吸运动的一定之动作,它与肺之活动,有密切的关系。肺呼吸,也叫外呼吸,因身体内不断的摄取空气中之酸素,又不断的将体内由酸化分解,所生之碳酸及水蒸气,向空气中排出,此机能叫做外呼吸。
组织呼吸也叫内呼吸,与外呼吸之气体交换作用正相反。何以呢?因为人身上诸组织由血液中赤血球取出酸素,因此而起燃烧作用。消费酸素,发生碳酸,再送回于血液,这就叫内呼吸。因此而动脉血变为静脉血,成了暗紫色。
皮肤呼吸,也叫作不感性呼吸,是由人周身上之皮肤(毛孔,排泻少量之碳酸,且能摄取少量之酸素。但于发汗时,则其排泻与摄取之量增加。(光绪三十三年,余应陆军部检阅军医考试,论病者发热恶寒之原理。余曾以中医肺主皮毛之说与此理互相阐明,是时中医之有西医知识者尚少,故得上考与五镇正医官陆叔丞君同列(九十五分)前茅,虽浅陋答案不足以质高明,然回忆当年,弥觉趣味横生也。)人体温度,平均为摄氏表(检温器)三十六度半。脉搏,一分间(成年人)约七八十动,小孩较快。若按中医说,脉是一息四、五至的为无病。若是太快,就是热,太慢就是寒,若太无力,就是虚,有力就是实。(此应参看脉学。)排泻器排泻器将体内之废物,放送于体外,就叫作排泻。这一类器官,就叫作排泻器。?这一类的器官,约分三种,即1.肺脏,2.皮肤,3.泌尿器。一二两项,前已说明,兹再略谈谈泌尿器,因为泌尿器是专营此排泻的啊(消化器参照)。
泌尿器分为肾脏、输尿管、膀胱及尿道四部:①肾脏(俗称腰子)肾脏系两个,蚕豆状,相对位于上部腰椎之左右两侧。它的凹部,叫作肾盂。肾内通过动脉和静脉,好比一个滤斗一样。肾内有很多的细尿管,总归二个大输尿管,它能把人身上无用的水及血中的废物,由此处滤出,送于输尿管,而达于膀胱,再由尿道排泻于体外,所谓尿是也。
②膀胱膀胱有三口,其二口通左右二输尿管,其一口通尿道。膀胱接尿道处,有括约肌环绕之,以资启闭,而司排泻尿液。中医书谓膀胱有下口无上口,一由于缺乏解剖,二由于专讲无形的气化。虽然是错误,可是它那消息阴阳的道理,是极其微妙,不可不知。
神经系神经系(已详前论脑)五官器五官器分五种,略述于下:1,触觉器皮肤内有神经,所以一触外物,它就能报告给脑子,而能知其何如。
2.嗅觉器鼻内粘膜有多数之嗅神经,所以外界香臭,一入鼻内,既能知之。
3,味觉器舌内含有多数之舌咽神经,故食物入口,而能辨别其何味也。
4.视觉器眼球内含视神经,故一遇外界之物映入,既能知之。眼球又有虹彩,能令昵孔散大或缩小。
5,听觉器耳之极深处,有听神经,故外音送入鼓膜,就可以次传到听神经,而知之也。
生殖器生殖器(从略)西医讲的生理,非常详细,除以上诸器官外,尚有细胞、组织、骨骼、筋肉、腺、办膜、体温等重要生理,必须详参。本篇限于篇幅,只讲大概,简略太甚,不足以言医学也。
二、中医生理学中医讲的生理,是以五脏六腑相分配的。讲中医的医理,总离不了阴阳二字。这两个字,含有微妙的至理,万不可加以怀疑。
Luo Zhiyuan, Author; Zhang Shaoshun & Guo Liuxia, Proofreaders
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Abstract
Luo Zhiyuan (1879–1953), whose given name was Wenjie, courtesy name Yicai, and pseudonym Moruo, was from Dezhou, Shandong. He was a modern physician and painter. In his youth, he studied Confucianism and had an interest in both medicine and painting. In 1907, he passed the imperial medical examination and was appointed as a military doctor for the Fifth Division of the Beiyang Army, later holding various military and political positions. After retiring in 1926, he settled in Beijing, making a living through medical practice and selling paintings. Initially studying under Shao Jingfu of Zhangqiu, he specialized in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Later, he studied Western medicine with Jiang Ziquan and Ding Fubao. In 1938, he served as a professor at the Huabei College of Traditional Chinese Medicine. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, he participated in organizing the Beijing Association of Traditional Chinese Medicine. His medical practice combined both Chinese and Western methods; he valued TCM theory, did not adhere strictly to old theories, and often offered new insights. He authored "Zhiyuan Medical Conversations" and its sequel, recording over fifty years of clinical cases and treatment experiences. He also had achievements in painting, serving as a professor in the Chinese Painting Department of the Peiping Academy of Fine Arts in 1935. Furthermore, he was proficient in bibliography and cataloging.
Physiology Combined Reference Volume – How does this human body stay alive? What do the organs throughout the body look like? Books that explain these principles are called "Physiology" in Western medicine, and "Neijing" (Classic of Internal Medicine) and "Nanjing" (Classic of Difficult Issues) in Traditional Chinese Medicine. However, lacking anatomy, much of what is written in TCM books is incorrect. Nevertheless, after thousands of years of research and theoretical deduction, its subtle and inconceivable theories have indeed discovered the principles of human life. If we can earnestly refer to the physiology of both Chinese and Western medicine with a calm mind, taking the useful and discarding the useless, it would naturally be a great progress in medicine. Now, I will briefly discuss the physiology of both systems. This argument is established for beginners, so it is very simple. For those seeking deeper knowledge, this is certainly the preliminary step.
I. Western Physiology: Brain The brain is divided into two parts: the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The cerebrum governs perception; for example, when there is stimulation such as pain or itching, it knows immediately. The cerebellum governs movement; movements of the hands and feet, and the rotation of the body, are all functions of the cerebellum. The cerebrum is located at the front of the head, and the cerebellum is at the back. Immediately below the cerebellum is the medulla oblongata, located behind the neck. It controls respiration and the transmission between the brain and the spinal cord; this is a very important area. Below the medulla oblongata connects the spinal cord, which is enclosed within the vertebral column. It receives commands from the brain to move the whole body and transmits sensations from the entire body to the brain to make it aware, which is called the reflex action. There is no part of the human body without the nervous system, similar to electric wires. Its central hub is the brain, medulla oblongata, and spinal cord; thus, these three are the foundation of the entire nervous system.
Blood Blood is the element that nourishes humans, like plants being nourished by sap. If one branch or leaf loses its sap, it will immediately develop problems. If the sap of the whole plant dries up, the plant will die. Humans are the same; once blood circulation stops, death follows immediately! The source of blood comes from the food and drink we consume. Therefore, to discuss the source of blood, one must briefly mention the physiology of the stomach and intestines. When we eat, food must mix with saliva in the mouth. This fluid has an alkaline action, converting starch into sugar. Upon reaching the stomach, gastric juice acts upon it. Gastric juice consists of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. The hydrochloric acid dissolves protein into peptones. (The small intestine is quite long and is the main site of absorption. Its wall possesses villi and folds. Thus, during contraction, it compresses vessels containing chyle, transporting chyle into the lacteals. The large intestine also has absorptive functions.) When food enters the duodenum from the stomach, intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, and bile act for digestion. Because the actions of saliva and gastric juice can only convert starch and protein, but not fat and other substances, the mucosa of the intestine and the pancreas (old term for pancreatic gland) secrete juices that break down fat globules into smaller molecules. Bile can dissolve things the stomach cannot digest and make digested substances transparent. Inside the intestine, they are absorbed by capillaries in the mucosa, gradually gathering into the portal vein, entering the liver, and forming blood. (The liver secretes bile, produces glycogen, purifies toxins from the blood, turns chyle-like blood red, and sends it to the heart.) The liver is the hematopoietic organ of the body. Whenever food gathers from lacteals into the portal vein, then enters the liver, and passes through hepatic capillaries, it is acted upon by liver cells (the liver contains a large amount of iron) and becomes red blood. From the hepatic veins, it flows into the inferior vena cava and reaches the heart. (The liver converts food into clean blood; thus, if food contains toxins, they are filtered here, and toxic juice is sent back to the gallbladder.) Nutrients absorbed by the intestinal wall have two transport routes: one goes via the portal vein through the liver into the superior vena cava to reach the heart; the other goes through intestinal lymphatics, gathers into the thoracic duct, mixes into the blood, and reaches the heart. (Water, salts, sugars, and proteins are transported via the portal vein, while fats are transported via intestinal lymphatics.) Blood circulates throughout the body, originating from the left side of the heart (left ventricle), first entering the aorta. Arterial blood is bright red. Once it circulates throughout the body, its function diminishes, like burnt-out coal where the heat is no longer useful. At this time, the blood has reached the finest arterial capillaries (at the tips of fingers and toes). From these tips, it passes into venous capillaries, gradually flowing back, and finally converging into the vena cava. Therefore, venous vessels are also called returning vessels. At this point, the blood has turned dark purple, returning from this vein to the right half of the heart (within the right atrium); this is called the systemic circulation. Once blood returns to the right side of the heart (right atrium), it exits from the right side and flows into the pulmonary artery. At this time, the blood is waste material, dark purple in color. Once the blood reaches the lungs, it utilizes lung respiration to exhale carbon dioxide and inhale oxygen, naturally expelling waste and adding new material (oxygen). It becomes bright red, useful blood again, and then returns via the pulmonary vein to the left atrium of the heart, and then to the left ventricle. It then circulates throughout the body again; this is called the pulmonary circulation. (TCM books state that Ying and Wei intersect at the Hand Taiyin Lung meridian, referring to the principle of blood circulating from the heart to the lungs. Such research shows that Chinese and Western studies can complement each other and prove themselves mutually.) The function of the heart involves alternating contraction and expansion of the left and right sides. It draws blood in from one side and pumps it out from the other, like a person clenching and unclenching a fist, or like a suction pump, sucking in one side and spraying out the other.
A person’s life cannot stop for a moment. If the heart stops, blood ceases to flow, and the person dies. Therefore, the heart is the master of the whole body. Although the brain and nerves are agile, without the nourishment of blood, they are useless.
The uses of blood are greatest: 1. It can nourish the whole body. 2. It generates heat, warming the body. 3. It can resist viruses. 4. All life phenomena of a person rely on its action.
Blood consists of red blood cells and white blood cells mixed together. However, white blood cells can freely enter and exit the blood vessel walls. Therefore, wherever abnormalities occur in the body, such as bacterial invasion, white blood cells surround them and resist them, determined to eliminate them. If they cannot resist, and the white blood cells are injured, then the person will feel unable to withstand the entanglement of the disease. TCM says blood is Ying (Nutritive Qi), and Qi is Wei (Defensive Qi); Ying travels within the vessels, and Wei travels outside the vessels. This is exactly the principle, which can be carefully studied. (Saying blood is Ying does not mean Ying is just a synonym for blood; saying Qi is Wei does not mean Wei is just a synonym for Qi. These two terms refer to fat outside of Qi and Blood, because this substance travels with Qi and Blood inside and outside the vessels, having a subtle relationship.) Skin The first layer of skin on the human body is called the epidermis. This epidermis has no nerves, so pricking it does not hurt (commonly known as oily skin). The second layer is called the dermis. This skin contains nerves and blood vessels, so pricking it hurts, and breaking it causes bleeding. It also has sweat glands; thus, when body temperature is too high, it sweats, excreting waste and dissipating body heat. It also has sebaceous glands, which constantly produce oil to protect the skin, and hair follicles. Digestive System The digestive system can be divided into five parts: 1. Oral cavity. 2. Pharynx. 3. Esophagus. 4. Stomach. 5. Intestines. Here, I will briefly discuss the physiology of the stomach and intestines.
The upper opening of the stomach is called the cardiac orifice, and the lower opening is called the pyloric orifice. The pyloric orifice is immediately adjacent to the duodenum. Inside the stomach is a fluid used to digest food, called gastric juice, composed of pepsin, free hydrochloric acid, and water.
The structure of the intestine is the same as the stomach, consisting of three membranes. The outer layer is the serous membrane, the middle layer is the muscular coat, and the inner layer is the mucosa. The mucosa has many villi and small glands, so it can absorb the essence of food, which is the first step in the source of blood. The upper part of the intestine is called the duodenum (near the lower opening of the stomach), below which is the small intestine, and below that is the large intestine. (At the junction of the large and small intestines, there is a small protrusion called the cecum. Its position is exactly at the lower right abdomen, i.e., the right iliac fossa, so appendicitis is easiest to diagnose. Also, the ileum and cecum prevent food from flowing backward into the small intestine.) Below that is the rectum, and below that is the anus.
The food we eat, whether soft or hard, is first chewed in the mouth, mixed with saliva, and swallowed. Upon reaching the stomach, gastric juice is secreted, and gastric muscles peristaltically contract. Within two or three hours, the food is digested into a porridge-like consistency, then sent through the pylorus into the duodenum, and then from the duodenum to the small intestine. Through the combination of intestinal juice, bile, and pancreatic juice, the porridge-like substance is converted into chyle. Then, it is absorbed by the intestinal mucosa and transported separately into lacteals and lymphatic vessels (food absorption is highest in the small intestine). At this time, undigested matter moves further down from the small intestine, passes through the cecum, and enters the large intestine借助 the power of intestinal peristalsis. Some food in the large intestine can still be absorbed. After this, the remaining residue becomes completely waste, with less moisture, gradually becoming solid, and is excreted through the anus as feces.
Circulatory System The circulatory system refers to the blood discussed earlier; see for clarity.
Respiratory System Why can humans breathe? Certainly, it is the action of respiratory nerves. However, the organs of respiration do not rely solely on respiratory nerves. Therefore, the lungs, intercostal muscles, and diaphragm must be briefly explained.
1. Lungs are located in the chest, formed by left and right parts, enveloping the heart. From the trachea to bronchial branches, the tubes become finer until they end in blind tubes (air-impermeable). Human respiration relies on the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cage, causing the lungs to move, exhaling the old and inhaling the new, assisting the activity of the heart. Western medicine says adults breathe nineteen times per minute. TCM says one exhalation and one inhalation constitute one breath (Xi), which is consistent.
2. Intercostal muscles are divided into inner and outer layers. Their physiology is opposite. The outer layer lifts the ribs (commonly known as rib bones), expanding the thoracic cage. The inner layer pulls the ribs down, shrinking the thoracic cage. Thus, this up-and-down movement allows the lungs to move easily and perform respiratory work.
3. Diaphragm lies horizontally below the lungs. Normally, it arches convexly upward; when contracted, it concaves downward, increasing the depth of the thoracic cage. The expansion and contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles are fixed movements of respiration, closely related to lung activity. Lung respiration is also called external respiration. Because the body continuously absorbs oxygen from the air and continuously expels carbon dioxide and water vapor generated by acidic decomposition within the body into the air, this function is called external respiration.
Tissue respiration is also called internal respiration, which is the exact opposite of the gas exchange function of external respiration. Why? Because various tissues in the body extract oxygen from red blood cells in the blood, initiating combustion. Consuming oxygen, generating carbon dioxide, and sending it back to the blood is called internal respiration. Consequently, arterial blood becomes venous blood, turning dark purple.
Skin respiration is also called insensible respiration. It excretes small amounts of carbon dioxide and absorbs small amounts of oxygen through the skin (pores) of the whole body. However, during sweating, the amount of excretion and absorption increases. (In the 33rd year of Guangxu [1907], I took the military medical examination inspected by the Ministry of War, discussing the principles of fever and aversion to cold in patients. I used the TCM theory that the Lung governs the skin and hair to elucidate this principle together with this logic. At that time, few TCM practitioners had Western medical knowledge, so I ranked highly in the exam, listed alongside Lu Shucheng, the Chief Medical Officer of the Fifth Division (95 points). Although my shallow answer was insufficient to question the experts, recalling those years, I felt full of interest.) Human body temperature averages 36.5 degrees Celsius. Pulse rate is about 70-80 beats per minute for adults; children are faster. According to TCM, a pulse of four or five beats per breath indicates no disease. If too fast, it is heat; if too slow, it is cold; if too weak, it is deficiency; if strong, it is excess. (This should be referred to Pulse Diagnosis.) Excretory System Excreting waste from the body to the outside is called excretion. Organs of this type are called excretory organs. These organs are roughly divided into three types: 1. Lungs, 2. Skin, 3. Urinary system. Items 1 and 2 have been explained previously. Here, I will briefly discuss the urinary system because the urinary system specializes in this excretion (refer to Digestive System).
The urinary system is divided into four parts: kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. ① Kidneys (commonly known as loins) There are two kidneys, bean-shaped, located bilaterally on either side of the upper lumbar vertebrae. Its concave part is called the renal pelvis. Arteries and veins pass through the kidney, like a filter. The kidney has many fine tubules, totaling two large ureters. It filters useless water from the body and waste from the blood, sending it to the ureters, reaching the bladder, and then excreting it to the outside through the urethra as urine.
② Bladder The bladder has three openings: two connect to the left and right ureters, and one connects to the urethra. Around the connection between the bladder and urethra, sphincter muscles surround it to open and close, managing the excretion of urine. TCM books state that the bladder has a lower opening but no upper opening, due to a lack of anatomy and a focus on invisible Qi transformation. Although this is incorrect, the principle of balancing Yin and Yang it conveys is extremely subtle and must be known.
Nervous System Nervous system (detailed in previous discussion on brain) Five Sense Organs The five sense organs are briefly described below: 1. Tactile organ: Nerves are contained within the skin, so upon touching external objects, it reports to the brain, allowing us to know how it feels.
2. Olfactory organ: The nasal mucosa has many olfactory nerves, so external odors, once entering the nose, are known.
3. Gustatory organ: The tongue contains many glossopharyngeal nerves, so when food enters the mouth, its taste can be distinguished.
4. Visual organ: The eyeball contains optic nerves, so when external objects reflect into it, they are known. The eyeball also has an iris, which can dilate or constrict the pupil.
5. Auditory organ: At the deepest part of the ear, there are auditory nerves. Thus, external sounds sent to the eardrum are transmitted to the auditory nerves, allowing us to know them.
Genital Organs Genital organs (omitted). Western physiology is very detailed. Besides the aforementioned organs, there are other important physiological aspects such as cells, tissues, bones, muscles, glands, membranes, and body temperature, which must be studied in detail. Limited by space, this article only discusses the general outline. Being too brief is insufficient to speak of medicine.
II. TCM Physiology The physiology discussed in TCM is distributed according to the Five Zang Organs and Six Fu Organs. Discussing TCM medical principles always revolves around the two characters Yin and Yang. These two characters contain subtle ultimate truths and must never be doubted.