荀子《劝学篇》云：“学莫便乎近其人，学之径莫速乎好其人。”杜甫谓：“不薄今人爱古人，转益多师是汝师。”学习中医药学，他从不囿于一家之言，而是师事百家，博采众长。故３０年代初期，上海名医恽铁樵招收函授弟子，李氏遥从受业两年，收益很大。恽师逝世时，他曾寄去一幅挽联云：“医界几老成，造物无情，恸此日又弱一个；少年作弟子，宫墙远望，知我公自足千秋。”后载于《药医学丛书》第一册上。因当时名老中医张山雷、张锡纯等诸老前辈相继谢世，书此联盖记其实尔。４０年代初，中医名家冉雪峰、胡书诚等在武汉行医，名噪江城。他虚心好学，四处收集他们的病案和处方，录存研习，以求进益。谦虚谨慎，不耻下问，更是他成功的秘诀。
忆抗战爆发后，李氏避难回乡，悬壶于汉阳官桥李家集。适福兴杂货店李某老丈，体素弱，有咳喘夙疾，某年冬天大发，延其诊治。审视前方，均为疏肝化痰之剂，其证面部浮肿，恶冷腰痛，呼吸迫促而不能平卧，少腹拘急不舒，大便尚可，小便短少，舌淡苔白，脉沉细而弱。断为久病咳喘，势必及肾，肾为真阴真阳之本，肾虚不能温煦摄纳，故而出现上述种种症状。《内经》谓“肾者水脏，主津液，主卧与喘”（《素问·逆调论》），是其明证。故从前治肺、治脾无效，当用温肾益阳固本之法为宜。遂与八味肾气丸作汤与服，数剂后，诸证稍减，惟喘促仍存。仿都气丸意，将第三卷１６０前方去肉桂，加五味子、服五剂，药有小效。又参都气丸合观音应梦散复方之意，用六味地黄丸加五味子，盐水炒补骨脂、胡桃肉、炒杜仲、煅磁石、淮牛膝、车前子与服。五剂后患者精神渐振，诸症减轻，惟稍动作仍感喘息不支。适老中医李某在集上开位育堂药店，李氏持方请教。
彼谓：此方温镇固摄，与证甚合，惟建议加沉香一味，以加强理气平喘作用。他从其说，将前方煎后每次用沉香末数分，随汤吞下。又五剂，喘息渐平，病即告愈。盖沉香一物，李时珍谓：“治上热下寒，气逆喘息，大肠湿闭，小便气淋，男子精冷。”用于此证，自有良效。而他于声誉日著之下，虚心诚恳地求教于同道，其严谨求实的科学态度，更属难能可贵。也正是因为这种可贵的精神和他所具有的渊博学识，为日后的伤寒学术研究奠定了坚实基础，才能取得突出的成就，成为国内外知名的伤寒学大家。
二、学宗仲景诠解伤寒李氏治学，既主张博采众长，广览群书，又提倡结合实际有所侧重。在数十年的中医临床与教学生活中，他对《伤寒论》的理论与临床研究倾注了大量心血，有较高的造诣。针对《伤寒论》注家的特点，他从历代《伤寒论》注本的数百家中，选取有代表性的二百余家悉心研究，择善而从，融会贯通，探其奥旨，以广实用。其主要表现如下：（一）伤寒研习须先明读法揆大论语词，约分数端，试述于次：１设问：古书多拟问之体。若孔孟老庄屈宋荀杨等大作，固无论已。即如《内经》本岐黄家言，亦多采用问对体，在《素问》、《灵枢》之章节比比都是。《伤寒论》间亦采用问答之词。如“问曰：证象阳旦……”者是。此外，《难经》相传为诠释《内经》岐黄问难之作，则多采用拟问之词。《伤寒论》亦运用此类语词，针对所提问题，用以调整语气，变换语法，使其前后相应，反复畅明其义理，很有必要。如“脉浮紧者，法当身疼痛，宜以汗解之；假令尺中迟者，不可发汗，何以知然？以荣气不足，血少故也。”又如“浮脉宜以汗解，必当先烦，烦乃有汗而解，何以知之？脉浮，故知汗出解”等皆是。
２引用：仲景自序：“撰用素问九卷，八十一难，阴阳大论，胎胪药录……”故书中论理多用直接引用古医经者。如“伤寒一日，太阳受之”（４条），是与《素问·热论》“伤寒一日，巨阳受之”之文相同，即为明显之例证。其“伤寒二三日，阳明少阳不见者，为不传也。”义亦相同，但语词略变，盖六经以次序言，固当有此排列冒首之句，仲景恐人由此而产生误解，故反复推理阐述病势之传与不传。又如，“营行脉中，卫行脉外”当是本诸《内经》“营在脉中，卫在脉外”（《灵枢·营卫生会篇》）之旨，亦与《难经》“清者为营，浊者为卫。营行脉中，卫行脉外”之词相符，仲景用以阐发营卫不和之机理，足证学术渊源有本。
３错综：同一方证，参错互见于《伤寒论》中的例子很多，如麻黄汤证共八条（包括太阳伤寒总纲），看似文字拖沓，证候重复，实则此详彼略，各有侧重，故反复申述，用交错的文法，以畅发其义。如“太阳病，或已发热，或未发热，必恶寒，体痛，呕逆，脉阴阳俱紧者，名为伤寒”，是太阳伤寒之总纲。“太阳病，头痛发热，身疼腰痛，骨节疼痛，恶风，无汗而喘者，麻黄汤主之”，是承接第三条而言，并补叙其主证，主方。“太阳与阳明合病，喘而胸满者，不可下，宜麻黄汤”，则第三卷１６１是二阳合病，病势偏重于表，故突出在表证上喘而胸满，并与阳明腹满而喘之病重于里者，作出鉴别。“太阳病，十日已去，……脉但浮者，与麻黄汤”，以示表病多日，举脉浮而括表实不解，亦即以脉括证法，故可与麻黄汤。“太阳病，脉浮紧，无汗，发热，身疼痛，八九日不解，表证仍在，此当发其汗，服药已微除，其人发烦目瞑，剧者必衄，衄乃解。所以然者，阳气重故也，麻黄汤主之。”太阳病八九日，伤寒表实之证俱在，自当主用麻黄汤。但因邪郁过久，故服汤后不为汗解，而为衄解。“伤寒，脉浮紧，不发汗，因致衄者，麻黄汤主之”。伤寒表寒实证，因邪郁致衄，故用麻黄汤。但麻黄汤为辛温发表之剂，其适应证自以无汗为标准，否则不可滥用。太阳伤寒表实无汗，其主脉浮紧，但亦有脉浮或浮数者。故“脉浮者，病在表，可发汗，宜麻黄汤”。综上所述，均是麻黄汤证，但其内容之中大意不同，故条文参错互见，曲尽其要。此种词例，当归于错综法。其它如桂枝证、柴胡证亦然，因文繁，不一一备举。
４反复：《伤寒论》中，有的将条文中的词句，分为二、三段阐述，反复申畅其义。此类语词，当是为反复法。如“微数之脉，慎不可灸。因火为邪，则为烦逆，追虚逐实，血散脉中，火气虽微，内攻有力，焦骨伤筋，血难复也”。此示阴虚火旺之体，切不可施用火治法，设误用灸法，则火热愈盛，谓之逐实，阴血愈伤，谓之追虚，火气虽微，内攻有力，造成损坏筋骨之后遗症，故反复申述误治的危害性。又如“太阳病，先发汗不解，而复下之，脉浮者不愈，浮为在外，而反下之，故令不愈，令脉浮，故在外，当须解外则愈，宜桂枝汤”。此节第一段总述太阳病的治法，当汗忌下，今误下后而表证仍在，是病候之全过程。第二段说明表病当因势利导。邪从外解，下法为里实证设，当汗反下，故病不愈。第三段申述下后而表证仍在，仍当以汗解为宜。反复说明表病治法当从外解的重要性。
５转换：六经病中，其证候经过适当的阶段，出现某些变化，有表病入里者，如“血弱气尽，腠理开，邪气因入，与正气相搏，结于胁下，正邪分争，往来寒热……，小柴胡汤主之；服柴胡汤已，渴者属阳明，以法治之”，是少阳而转属阳明，自当根据阳明证情，考虑以清下等方法治之。
又有轻证转为危证者，如“少阴病，脉微细沉，但欲卧，汗出不烦，自欲吐，至五六日，自利，复烦躁不得卧寐者，死”，是少阳虚寒，因失治而转为危证。再有表里寒热错综复杂的病候，则其治疗措施，宜有缓急先后之别。如“伤寒大下后，复发汗，心下痞，恶寒者，表未解也，不可攻痞，当先解表，……解表宜桂枝汤，攻痞宜大黄黄连泻心汤”，是先治其表之例。又“伤寒，医下之，续得下利清谷不止，身疼痛者，急当救里……救里宜四逆汤，救表宜桂枝汤”则是急当救里之例。
又有同一病候，因具体病况不同，则其转归自有不同。如“伤寒热少厥微，指头寒，嘿嘿不欲食，烦躁，数日，小便利，色白者，此热除也，欲得食，其病为愈；若厥而呕，胸胁烦满者，其后必便血”。此是热厥而有两种转归，一则可以自愈；一则邪热深入，损伤阴络而为便血。以上数例，皆可归于转换法。
６反衬：反衬法是根据相似的脉象、证候，以反衬的词句，针对现有证候的特征而加以分析比较。例如“病人脉数，数为热，当消谷引食，而反吐者，此以发汗，令阳气微，膈气虚，脉乃数也。数为客热，不能消谷，以胃中虚冷，故吐也。”脉象主病，一般是数脉主热。若胃热而见脉数，其证当消谷引食。今发汗后中阳气衰，虚冷转甚，阳浮于上，故曰客热。胃中虚冷而吐，其证当如太阳脏寒不渴之例，其脉虽数必显然无力，与胃热脉数自有不同。又如“伤寒有热，少腹满，应小便不利。今反利者，为有血也。当下之，不可余药，宜抵当丸。”此以反衬的词句，用少腹满，小便不利之蓄水证，以说明少腹满，小便自利，蓄血证，这即是反衬法的表现形式。
第三卷１６２７排比：《伤寒论》的某些条文中，针对两个截然相反的病位、性质和病势发展的不同情况，或证候类似，性质不同，运用对比的词句来进行分析比较，可叫做排比法。具体举例于次。
（１）阴阳对举法：例如“病有发热恶寒者，发于阴也；无热恶寒者，发于阳也……。”此乃将发热恶寒与无热恶寒而辨病发于阳与发于阴。当然，还须综合其它证象而拟定治疗措施，则更为精确。又如“病发于阳，而反下之，热入因作结胸；病发于阴，而反下之，因作痞也。……”说明表证误下后，若其人体质较实，阳热内陷，与胸膈水饮相结，则成为结胸，所谓“病发于阳”；如病人胃阳素弱误下后，使客气结于心下，聚而成痞，即所谓“病发于阴”。以上二例是阴阳对举法。
（２）表里对举法：如“伤寒，不大便六七日，头痛有热者，与承气汤，其小便清者，知不在里，仍在表也，当须发汗，……宜桂枝汤。”说明头痛有热不大便，病有在表或在里两种可能，治法在表宜汗，在里宜下，故举出小便清否以为辨表里证之依据，是表里对举法。
（３）虚实对举法：如“发汗，病不解，反恶寒者，虚故也；不恶寒，但热者，实也，当和胃气，与调胃承气汤”，是同一汗后，因病人体质不同，则病机又有虚实之不同。汗后恶寒，多属少阴虚寒，不恶寒但热，多属阳明实热之证，故与调和胃气之调胃承气汤，是虚实对举法。
（４）寒热对举法：《伤寒论》里有此条与彼条互为对举者，亦属于排比法范畴。如“自利不渴者，属太阴，以其脏有寒故也，当温之，宜服四逆辈。”“下利，欲饮水者，以有热故也。白头翁汤主之。”一属太阳脏寒，故自利不渴，治法当温，主方宜理中、四逆之类。一属厥阴热利，故下利渴欲饮水，治法主以直清里热之白头翁汤。再如“腹满不减，减不足言，当下之，宜大承气汤。”此与《金匮》“腹满时减，复如故，此为寒，当与温药”（《腹满寒疝宿食病篇》）证候类似。但一属实热，一属虚寒，性质截然不同，则治法自有不同。二者排比举出，可以互参比较。
８摹状：古人常用叠字形容自然界人物之情态。刘勰所谓“灼灼状桃花之鲜，依依尽杨柳之貌，杲杲为日出之容，漉漉拟雨雪之状，喈喈逐黄鸟之声，嘤嘤学草虫之韵，……并以少总多，情貌无遗矣。”（《文心雕龙·物色篇》）宋·陆游诗：“黯黯江云瓜步雨，萧萧木叶石城秋。”（《登赏心亭诗》）当亦同此类。仲景则用叠字以形容疾病之情状，如“啬啬恶寒”：啬，《玉篇》释“为悭贪也”。《易·说卦传》亦有“为吝啬”之义。《伤寒论》则叠用啬啬两字，以形容风寒中于太阳肌表，卫外阳气不得舒展，故现此缩头缩脑畏恶风寒之状。
“淅淅恶风”：淅，《说文》释为“汰米也”。《孟子》：“淅淅而行。”夏侯孝若《寒雪赋》有“集洪霰之淅沥”之句，后人又以淅沥为风雨之声，均从许氏之说延伸而来。淅淅恶风，当风邪中于肌腠，卫外不和，见风猝然凛冽，毫毛收缩，故有此形容之词。
“翕翕发热”：《说文》释翕“起也”。《尔雅·释诂》谓翕“合也”。如鸟合羽，轻附浅合之貌。
翕翕发热，即方中行所云“热候之轻微，翕火炙也，翕为温热而不蒸蒸大热也。”“微似有汗者佳”：《集韵》释“，汗出貌，一曰小雨不辍也。”仲景用以形容服桂枝汤后正胜邪却，全身温润，而微汗病解之象，盖不汗则邪无从出，过汗淋漓则有伤阳气损阴液之虞，此一词，甚是恰到好处，惟妙惟肖。
“项背强”：音殊，《说文》释为“鸟之短羽然”。象形，形容短羽之鸟欲飞而不得伸腾之状。此借以释项背强，亦是摹状之词。明人有释为几案之几，谓有拘谨之意，其说亦有所本。但字无钩挑，愚意以从大多数读殊为是。
“然汗出”：《埤苍》释“水行出也。”又疾貌，曹植《七启》有“凫没”之句。仲景用第三卷１６３然汗出或然汗出，以形容阳明高热，亦即程郊倩所谓有连绵不断汗出之意。
荀子在《劝学篇》中说：“学习没有比接近良师更便捷的，求学的途径没有比仰慕贤人更迅速的。”杜甫曾说：“不轻视今人而喜爱古人，广泛地以众人为师才是你真正的老师。”在学习中医药学时，他从不局限于某一家的学说，而是向各家学习，博采众长。因此，在20世纪30年代初，上海名医恽铁樵招收函授弟子，李培生先生远程跟随恽老师学习两年，获益良多。恽老师逝世时，他曾寄去一副挽联说：“医界几位老前辈相继离世，造物主无情，悲痛今天又少了一位；身为少年弟子，仰望恩师高墙，知道您的功德足以流传千秋。”这副对联后来刊登在《药医学丛书》第一册上。因为当时著名的老中医张山雷、张锡纯等前辈相继去世，写这副对联大概是为了记录这一事实吧。20世纪40年代初，中医名家冉雪峰、胡书诚等在武汉行医，在江城名声大噪。他虚心好学，四处收集他们的病案和处方，记录下来并加以研习，以求进步。谦虚谨慎，不以向地位低的人请教为耻，更是他成功的秘诀。
回忆抗战爆发后，李氏避难回到家乡，在汉阳官桥李家集行医。恰逢福兴杂货店李某的老丈人，体质一向虚弱，有咳嗽气喘的旧疾，某年冬天病情大发，请他诊治。审视之前的方子，都是疏肝化痰的药物，患者的症状是面部浮肿，怕冷腰痛，呼吸急促不能平卧，小腹部拘急不舒服，大便尚可，小便短少，舌质淡苔白，脉象沉细而弱。诊断为久病咳喘，势必波及肾脏，肾是真阴真阳的根本，肾虚不能温煦和摄纳，所以出现上述种种症状。《内经》说“肾是水脏，主管津液，主管睡眠和喘息”（《素问·逆调论》），这是明确的证据。所以之前治疗肺、治疗脾无效，应当采用温补肾阳固本的方法为宜。于是给予八味肾气丸改为汤剂服用，几剂后，各种症状稍减，只有气喘仍然存留。仿照都气丸的意思，将第三卷160页的前方去掉肉桂，加入五味子，服用五剂，药物有一点小效。又参考都气丸合观音应梦散复方之意，用六味地黄丸加五味子，盐水炒补骨脂、胡桃肉、炒杜仲、煅磁石、淮牛膝、车前子服用。五剂后患者精神逐渐振作，各种症状减轻，只是稍微活动仍感到喘息支撑不住。恰逢老中医李某在集市上开设位育堂药店，李氏拿着方子前去请教。
那位老中医说：这个方子温镇固摄，与证候很符合，只是建议加入沉香一味药，以加强理气平喘的作用。他听从了这个建议，将前方煎好后，每次用沉香末几分，随汤药吞下。又服五剂，喘息逐渐平息，病即告愈。沉香这一味药，李时珍说：“治疗上热下寒，气逆喘息，大肠湿闭，小便气淋，男子精冷。”用于此证，自有良好疗效。而他在声誉日益显著的情况下，虚心诚恳地向同道求教，这种严谨求实的科学态度，更是难能可贵。也正是因为这种可贵的精神和他所具有的渊博学识，为日后的伤寒学术研究奠定了坚实基础，才能取得突出的成就，成为国内外知名的伤寒学大家。
二、学术宗旨宗法仲景，诠释解说伤寒
李氏的治学方法，既主张博采众长，广览群书，又提倡结合实际有所侧重。在数十年的中医临床与教学生活中，他对《伤寒论》的理论与临床研究倾注了大量心血，有较高的造诣。针对《伤寒论》注家的特点，他从历代《伤寒论》注本的数百家中，选取有代表性的二百余家悉心研究，择善而从，融会贯通，探求其深奥旨意，以扩大实用范围。其主要表现如下：
（一）伤寒研习必须先明确读法，推究大论语词，大约分为几个方面，试述于次：
1. 设问：古书多采用拟问的体裁。像孔孟老庄屈宋荀杨等人的大作，自然不必说了。即使是《内经》，本是岐黄学派之言，也多采用问答体，在《素问》、《灵枢》的各章节中比比皆是。《伤寒论》中也间或采用问答的词句。如“问曰：证象阳旦……”就是这类。此外，《难经》相传是诠释《内经》岐黄问难的作品，则多采用拟问的词句。《伤寒论》也运用此类语词，针对所提问题，用以调整语气，变换语法，使其前后相应，反复畅明其义理，很有必要。如“脉浮紧者，法当身疼痛，宜以汗解之；假令尺中迟者，不可发汗，何以知然？以荣气不足，血少故也。”又如“浮脉宜以汗解，必当先烦，烦乃有汗而解，何以知之？脉浮，故知汗出解”等皆是。
2. 引用：仲景自序说：“撰用素问九卷，八十一难，阴阳大论，胎胪药录……”所以书中论理多用直接引用古医经的地方。如“伤寒一日，太阳受之”（第4条），是与《素问·热论》“伤寒一日，巨阳受之”的文字相同，即为明显的例证。其“伤寒二三日，阳明少阳不见者，为不传也。”意义也相同，但语词略有变化，盖六经按次序而言，本来应当有此排列冒首的句子，仲景恐怕人由此而产生误解，所以反复推理阐述病势的传变与不传。又如，“营行脉中，卫行脉外”应当是本诸《内经》“营在脉中，卫在脉外”（《灵枢·营卫生会篇》）的宗旨，也与《难经》“清者为营，浊者为卫。营行脉中，卫行脉外”的文字相符，仲景用以阐发营卫不和的机理，足证学术渊源有本。
3. 错综：同一方证，参错互见于《伤寒论》中的例子很多，如麻黄汤证共八条（包括太阳伤寒总纲），看似文字拖沓，证候重复，实则此详彼略，各有侧重，所以反复申述，用交错的文法，以畅发其义。如“太阳病，或已发热，或未发热，必恶寒，体痛，呕逆，脉阴阳俱紧者，名为伤寒”，是太阳伤寒的总纲。“太阳病，头痛发热，身疼腰痛，骨节疼痛，恶风，无汗而喘者，麻黄汤主之”，是承接第三条而言，并补叙其主证、主方。“太阳与阳明合病，喘而胸满者，不可下，宜麻黄汤”，则是二阳合病，病势偏重于表，所以突出在表证上的喘而胸满，并与阳明腹满而喘的病重于里的情况，作出鉴别。“太阳病，十日已去，……脉但浮者，与麻黄汤”，以示表病多日，举脉浮而概括表实不解，亦即以脉括证法，所以可与麻黄汤。“太阳病，脉浮紧，无汗，发热，身疼痛，八九日不解，表证仍在，此当发其汗，服药已微除，其人发烦目瞑，剧者必衄，衄乃解。所以然者，阳气重故也，麻黄汤主之。”太阳病八九日，伤寒表实之证俱在，自然应当主用麻黄汤。但因邪气郁结过久，所以服汤后不为汗解，而为衄解。“伤寒，脉浮紧，不发汗，因致衄者，麻黄汤主之”。伤寒表寒实证，因邪气郁结导致鼻衄，所以用麻黄汤。但麻黄汤为辛温发表之剂，其适应证自然以无汗为标准，否则不可滥用。太阳伤寒表实无汗，其主脉浮紧，但亦有脉浮或浮数的情况。所以“脉浮者，病在表，可发汗，宜麻黄汤”。综上所述，均是麻黄汤证，但其内容之中大意不同，所以条文参错互见，曲尽其要。此种词例，当归于错综法。其它如桂枝证、柴胡证亦然，因文字繁杂，不一一备举。
4. 反复：《伤寒论》中，有的将条文中的词句，分为二、三段阐述，反复申畅其义。此类语词，当是为反复法。如“微数之脉，慎不可灸。因火为邪，则为烦逆，追虚逐实，血散脉中，火气虽微，内攻有力，焦骨伤筋，血难复也”。这是示阴虚火旺之体，切不可施用火治法，假如误用灸法，则火热愈盛，谓之逐实，阴血愈伤，谓之追虚，火气虽微，内攻有力，造成损坏筋骨的后遗症，所以反复申述误治的危害性。又如“太阳病，先发汗不解，而复下之，脉浮者不愈，浮为在外，而反下之，故令不愈，令脉浮，故在外，当须解外则愈，宜桂枝汤”。此节第一段总述太阳病的治法，当汗忌下，现在误下后而表证仍在，是病候的全过程。第二段说明表病当因势利导。邪从外解，下法是为里实证设立的，当汗反下，所以病不愈。第三段申述下后而表证仍在，仍当以汗解为宜。反复说明表病治法当从外解的重要性。
5. 转换：六经病中，其证候经过适当的阶段，出现某些变化，有表病入里的，如“血弱气尽，腠理开，邪气因入，与正气相搏，结于胁下，正邪分争，往来寒热……，小柴胡汤主之；服柴胡汤已，渴者属阳明，以法治之”，这是少阳而转属阳明，自然应当根据阳明证情，考虑以清下等方法治之。又有轻证转为危证的，如“少阴病，脉微细沉，但欲卧，汗出不烦，自欲吐，至五六日，自利，复烦躁不得卧寐者，死”，这是少阴阳虚寒，因失治而转为危证。再有表里寒热错综复杂的病候，则其治疗措施，宜有缓急先后之别。如“伤寒大下后，复发汗，心下痞，恶寒者，表未解也，不可攻痞，当先解表，……解表宜桂枝汤，攻痞宜大黄黄连泻心汤”，是先治其表的例子。又“伤寒，医下之，续得下利清谷不止，身疼痛者，急当救里……救里宜四逆汤，救表宜桂枝汤”则是急当救里的例子。又有同一病候，因具体病况不同，则其转归自有不同。如“伤寒热少厥微，指头寒，嘿嘿不欲食，烦躁，数日，小便利，色白者，此热除也，欲得食，其病为愈；若厥而呕，胸胁烦满者，其后必便血”。这是热厥而有两种转归，一则可以自愈；一则邪热深入，损伤阴络而为便血。以上数例，皆可归于转换法。
6. 反衬：反衬法是根据相似的脉象、证候，以反衬的词句，针对现有证候的特征而加以分析比较。例如“病人脉数，数为热，当消谷引食，而反吐者，此以发汗，令阳气微，膈气虚，脉乃数也。数为客热，不能消谷，以胃中虚冷，故吐也。”脉象主病，一般是数脉主热。若胃热而见脉数，其证应当消谷引食。现在发汗后中阳气衰，虚冷转甚，阳浮于上，所以曰客热。胃中虚冷而吐，其证应当如太阳脏寒不渴的例子，其脉虽数必然显然无力，与胃热脉数自然有所不同。又如“伤寒有热，少腹满，应小便不利。今反利者，为有血也。当下之，不可余药，宜抵当丸。”这是以反衬的词句，用少腹满，小便不利的蓄水证，来说明少腹满，小便自利的蓄血证，这即是反衬法的表现形式。
7. 排比：《伤寒论》的某些条文中，针对两个截然相反的病位、性质和病势发展的不同情况，或证候类似，性质不同，运用对比的词句来进行分析比较，可叫做排比法。具体举例于次。
（1）阴阳对举法：例如“病有发热恶寒者，发于阴也；无热恶寒者，发于阳也……。”这是将发热恶寒与无热恶寒来辨别病发于阳与发于阴。当然，还须综合其它证象而拟定治疗措施，则更为精确。又如“病发于阳，而反下之，热入因作结胸；病发于阴，而反下之，因作痞也。……”说明表证误下后，若其人体质较实，阳热内陷，与胸膈水饮相结，则成为结胸，所谓“病发于阳”；如病人胃阳素弱误下后，使客气结于心下，聚而成痞，即所谓“病发于阴”。以上二例是阴阳对举法。
（2）表里对举法：如“伤寒，不大便六七日，头痛有热者，与承气汤，其小便清者，知不在里，仍在表也，当须发汗，……宜桂枝汤。”说明头痛有热不大便，病有在表或在里两种可能，治法在表宜汗，在里宜下，所以举出小便清否以为辨表里证之依据，是表里对举法。
（3）虚实对举法：如“发汗，病不解，反恶寒者，虚故也；不恶寒，但热者，实也，当和胃气，与调胃承气汤”，是同一汗后，因病人体质不同，则病机又有虚实之不同。汗后恶寒，多属少阴虚寒，不恶寒但热，多属阳明实热之证，所以与调和胃气的调胃承气汤，是虚实对举法。
（4）寒热对举法：《伤寒论》里有此条与彼条互为对举者，亦属于排比法范畴。如“自利不渴者，属太阴，以其脏有寒故也，当温之，宜服四逆辈。”“下利，欲饮水者，以有热故也。白头翁汤主之。”一属太阴脏寒，所以自利不渴，治法当温，主方宜理中、四逆之类。一属厥阴热利，所以下利渴欲饮水，治法主以直清里热的白头翁汤。再如“腹满不减，减不足言，当下之，宜大承气汤。”这与《金匮》“腹满时减，复如故，此为寒，当与温药”（《腹满寒疝宿食病篇》）证候类似。但一属实热，一属虚寒，性质截然不同，则治法自然不同。二者排比举出，可以互参比较。
8. 摹状：古人常用叠字形容自然界人物之情态。刘勰所谓“灼灼状桃花之鲜，依依尽杨柳之貌，杲杲为日出之容，漉漉拟雨雪之状，喈喈逐黄鸟之声，嘤嘤学草虫之韵，……并以少总多，情貌无遗矣。”（《文心雕龙·物色篇》）宋·陆游诗：“黯黯江云瓜步雨，萧萧木叶石城秋。”（《登赏心亭诗》）当亦同此类。仲景则用叠字以形容疾病之情状，如“啬啬恶寒”：啬，《玉篇》释“为悭贪也”。《易·说卦传》亦有“为吝啬”之义。《伤寒论》则叠用啬啬两字，以形容风寒中于太阳肌表，卫外阳气不得舒展，所以现此缩头缩脑畏恶风寒之状。
“淅淅恶风”：淅，《说文》释为“汰米也”。《孟子》：“淅淅而行。”夏侯孝若《寒雪赋》有“集洪霰之淅沥”之句，后人又以淅沥为风雨之声，均从许氏之说延伸而来。淅淅恶风，当风邪中于肌腠，卫外不和，见风猝然凛冽，毫毛收缩，所以有此形容之词。
“翕翕发热”：《说文》释翕“起也”。《尔雅·释诂》谓翕“合也”。如鸟合羽，轻附浅合之貌。翕翕发热，即方中行所云“热候之轻微，翕火炙也，翕为温热而不蒸蒸大热也。”
“微似有汗者佳”：《集韵》释“，汗出貌，一曰小雨不辍也。”仲景用以形容服桂枝汤后正胜邪却，全身温润，而微汗病解之象，盖不汗则邪无从出，过汗淋漓则有伤阳气损阴液之虞，此一词，甚是恰到好处，惟妙惟肖。
“项背强”：音殊，《说文》释为“鸟之短羽然”。象形，形容短羽之鸟欲飞而不得伸腾之状。此借以释项背强，亦是摹状之词。明人有释为几案之几，谓有拘谨之意，其说亦有所本。但字无钩挑，愚意以从大多数读殊为是。
“然汗出”：《埤苍》释“水行出也。”又疾貌，曹植《七启》有“凫没”之句。仲景用然汗出或然汗出，以形容阳明高热，亦即程郊倩所谓有连绵不断汗出之意。
Xunzi in the "Encouraging Learning" chapter states: "In learning, there is no greater convenience than to be close to a good teacher; in the path of learning, there is no faster way than to admire and emulate worthy individuals." Du Fu once said: "Do not disdain contemporary scholars while loving the ancients; taking many masters as your teachers is the true way for you." In studying Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), he never confined himself to the theories of a single school, but learned from various schools, drawing on their strengths. Therefore, in the early 1930s, when the famous Shanghai physician Yun Tieqiao recruited correspondence students, Mr. Li Peisheng studied remotely under Master Yun for two years and benefited greatly. Upon Master Yun's death, he sent a mourning couplet stating: "Several elders in the medical profession have passed away; Heaven is ruthless, grieving that today another has weakened; As a young disciple, gazing far at the master's high walls, I know your merits will suffice for a thousand autumns." This couplet was later published in Volume One of the "Yao [Illegible] Medical Series". At that time, renowned senior TCM physicians such as Zhang Shanlei and Zhang Xichun had successively passed away, so writing this couplet was likely to record these facts. In the early 1940s, famous TCM practitioners Ran Xuefeng and Hu Shucheng were practicing in Wuhan, becoming well-known in the Jiangcheng region. He was humble and eager to learn, collecting their medical cases and prescriptions from all over, recording them for study to seek improvement. Humility, caution, and not being ashamed to ask questions of those with lower status were the secrets to his success.
Recalling after the outbreak of the Anti-Japanese War, Mr. Li took refuge in his hometown and practiced medicine in Lijiaji, Guanqiao, Hanyang. It happened that the father-in-law of a certain Mr. Li from Fuxing General Store, whose constitution was generally weak, suffered from a chronic history of cough and asthma. One winter, the condition flared up severely, and he invited Mr. Li for treatment. Examining the previous prescriptions, they were all formulas for soothing the liver and resolving phlegm. The patient's symptoms included facial edema, aversion to cold and lower back pain, rapid breathing unable to lie flat, tightness and discomfort in the lower abdomen, normal bowel movements, scanty urine, pale tongue with white coating, and a deep, fine, and weak pulse. The diagnosis was chronic cough and asthma, which inevitably affected the Kidney. The Kidney is the root of True Yin and True Yang; Kidney deficiency fails to warm and grasp qi, thus causing the aforementioned symptoms. The *Neijing* states: "The Kidney is the Water Organ, governing body fluids, sleep, and wheezing" (*Suwen: Ni Diao Lun*), which is clear evidence. Therefore, previous treatments targeting the Lung and Spleen were ineffective; it was appropriate to use methods to warm the Kidney, benefit Yang, and consolidate the root. Consequently, Ba Wei Shen Qi Wan (Eight-Ingredient Replenishing the Kidney Qi Pill) was prescribed in decoction form. After several doses, various symptoms decreased slightly, but wheezing persisted. Mimicking the intention of Du Qi Wan (Allure Qi Pill), the Cinnamon Twig (Rou Gui) was removed from the previous prescription (Vol. 3, p. 160), Schisandra Berry (Wu Wei Zi) was added, and five doses were taken, yielding slight efficacy. Further referencing the combined intention of Du Qi Wan and Guanyin Ying Meng San (Guanyin Responds to Dreams Powder), Liu Wei Di Huang Wan (Six-Ingredient Rehmannia Pill) was used with added Schisandra Berry, Saline-fried Psoralea Fruit (Bu Gu Zhi), Walnut Kernel (Hu Tao Rou), Stir-fried Eucommia Bark (Du Zhong), Calcined Magnetite (Duan Ci Shi), Huai Achyranthes Root (Huai Niu Xi), and Plantago Seed (Che Qian Zi). After five doses, the patient's spirit gradually revived, and various symptoms alleviated, though mild exertion still caused breathlessness. Coincidentally, an old TCM physician named Mr. Li opened a pharmacy called Weiyu Tang in the market town. Mr. Li took the prescription to consult him.
The old physician said: "This formula warms, anchors, consolidates, and secures, which fits the syndrome very well. However, I suggest adding one herb, Agarwood (Chen Xiang), to strengthen the regulation of qi and calm wheezing." He followed this advice. After decocting the previous formula, he administered a few fen of Agarwood powder each time, swallowed with the decoction. After another five doses, the wheezing gradually stabilized, and the illness was cured. Regarding Agarwood, Li Shizhen stated: "It treats upper heat and lower cold, rebellious qi with wheezing, damp obstruction of the Large Intestine, Qi-type strangury, and cold sperm in men." Used for this syndrome, it naturally yields good results. Despite his growing reputation, his humility and sincerity in seeking advice from colleagues demonstrated a rigorous and realistic scientific attitude, which was truly rare. It was precisely this valuable spirit and his profound knowledge that laid a solid foundation for future academic research on Shanghan (Cold Damage), enabling him to achieve outstanding success and become a renowned expert in Shanghan studies both domestically and internationally.
II. Academic Doctrine Following Zhongjing to Interpret Shanghan
Mr. Li's approach to scholarship advocated drawing on diverse strengths and reading widely, while also emphasizing focus based on practical application. Over decades of clinical practice and teaching in TCM, he devoted significant effort to the theoretical and clinical research of the *Shanghan Lun* (Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders), achieving high proficiency. Considering the characteristics of commentators on the *Shanghan Lun*, he carefully studied over two hundred representative commentaries out of hundreds from past dynasties, selecting the best aspects, integrating them comprehensively, exploring their profound meanings, and expanding their practical utility. His main manifestations are as follows:
(I) To study Shanghan, one must first clarify the method of reading and deduce the linguistic features of the text, roughly divided into several aspects, described below:
1. Hypothetical Questions: Ancient texts often adopt a question-and-answer format. Works by Confucius, Mencius, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Qu Yuan, Song Yu, Xunzi, and Yang Xiong, for instance, certainly do so. Even the *Neijing*, originally the discourse of Qi Bo and Huang Di, frequently employs dialogue formats, seen throughout chapters of the *Suwen* and *Lingshu*. The *Shanghan Lun* also occasionally uses question-and-answer phrases. For example, "Question: The syndrome resembles Yang Dan..." is one such case. Additionally, the *Nanjing* (Classic of Difficult Issues), traditionally believed to interpret the Qi-Huang dialogues of the *Neijing*, mostly uses hypothetical questions. The *Shanghan Lun* also utilizes such language to adjust tone, vary syntax, ensure coherence, and repeatedly clarify principles, which is necessary. For instance, "If the pulse is floating and tight, body pain is expected, and sweating should be induced; however, if the cun position is slow, sweating is contraindicated. Why is this known? Because Ying Qi is insufficient and blood is scarce." Another example is, "For a floating pulse, sweating is indicated; there will likely be irritability first, and only after irritability will sweat appear and resolve the condition. How do we know this? Because the pulse is floating, we know sweat will emerge and resolve the condition."
2. Citation: Zhang Zhongjing's preface states: "Compiled using the Nine Volumes of Suwen, Eighty-One Difficulties, Great Treatise on Yin and Yang, Tai Lu Yao Lu..." Thus, the book often directly cites ancient medical classics in its reasoning. For example, "In one day of Shanghan, the Taiyang channel receives the pathogen" (Clause 4) is identical to the text in *Suwen: Re Lun*: "In one day of Shanghan, Ju Yang receives the pathogen," serving as a clear example. The meaning of "On the second or third day of Shanghan, if Yangming and Shaoyang signs are absent, transmission has not occurred" is also the same, though the wording varies slightly. Since the Six Channels follow a specific order, introductory sentences like this are expected. Zhongjing likely feared misunderstanding, so he repeatedly reasoned and explained the transmission and non-transmission of disease trends. Furthermore, "Ying circulates within the vessels, Wei circulates outside the vessels" is based on the *Neijing*'s principle: "Ying is within the vessels, Wei is outside the vessels" (*Lingshu: Ying Wei Sheng Hui Pian*), and matches the wording in the *Nanjing*: "The clear portion becomes Ying, the turbid portion becomes Wei. Ying circulates within the vessels, Wei circulates outside." Zhongjing used this to elucidate the mechanism of disharmony between Ying and Wei, proving that his academic origins have a solid foundation.
3. Interweaving: There are many examples in the *Shanghan Lun* where the same formula-syndrome complex appears interwoven across different clauses. For instance, Mahuang Tang Syndrome appears in eight clauses (including the general outline of Taiyang Cold Damage). Although it may seem verbose and repetitive, it is actually detailed in some places and brief in others, each with a different emphasis. Thus, it repeats statements using interwoven syntax to fully express its meaning. For example, "Taiyang disease, whether fever has already appeared or not, definitely involves aversion to cold, body pain, vomiting/reversal of qi, and a pulse that is tight at both yin and yang positions is named Cold Damage." This is the general outline of Taiyang Cold Damage. "Taiyang disease, headache, fever, body and waist pain, joint pain, aversion to wind, absence of sweat, and wheezing: Mahuang Tang governs it." This follows Clause 3, supplementing the main syndrome and main formula. "Combined disease of Taiyang and Yangming, with wheezing and chest fullness: Purging is contraindicated; Mahuang Tang is suitable." This refers to Combined Disease of Two Yangs, where the trend favors the exterior, highlighting the exterior syndrome of wheezing and chest fullness, distinguishing it from Yangming abdominal fullness and wheezing where the disease is severe in the interior. "Taiyang disease, ten days have passed... if the pulse is merely floating, give Mahuang Tang." This indicates that for exterior diseases lasting many days, citing the floating pulse summarizes exterior excess unresolved, employing the method of using pulse to summarize syndrome, thus Mahuang Tang can be given. "Taiyang disease, pulse floating and tight, no sweat, fever, body pain, unresolved after eight or nine days, exterior syndrome remains; this requires inducing sweat. After taking the medicine, symptoms slightly subside, the person becomes irritable and eyes feel heavy; in severe cases, epistaxis occurs, and resolution comes through bleeding. The reason is that Yang Qi is heavy; Mahuang Tang governs it." On the eighth or ninth day of Taiyang disease, all signs of exterior excess cold damage are present, so Mahuang Tang should naturally be the primary choice. However, because the pathogen has been constrained for too long, after taking the decoction, resolution comes not through sweat but through epistaxis. "Shanghan, pulse floating and tight, failure to induce sweat leads to epistaxis; Mahuang Tang governs it." For exterior excess cold damage in Shanghan, due to pathogen constraint causing epistaxis, Mahuang Tang is used. But Mahuang Tang is a pungent-warm exterior-releasing agent; its indication is naturally absence of sweat, otherwise it should not be abused. For Taiyang Cold Damage with exterior excess and no sweat, the main pulse is floating and tight, but there are also cases of floating or floating-rapid pulses. Therefore, "If the pulse is floating, the disease is in the exterior, sweating can be induced, and Mahuang Tang is suitable." In summary, although all are Mahuang Tang syndromes, the core meanings differ, hence the clauses interweave to exhaustively cover the essentials. Such linguistic examples belong to the Method of Interweaving. The same applies to Guizhi Syndrome and Chaihu Syndrome, but due to length, they are not listed individually.
4. Repetition: In the *Shanghan Lun*, some clauses divide sentences into two or three paragraphs to repeatedly elaborate on their meaning. Such linguistic patterns correspond to the Method of Repetition. For example, "A fine and rapid pulse must not be treated with moxibustion. Because fire becomes a pathogen, it causes irritability and reversal; pursuing deficiency and driving out excess scatters blood in the vessels. Although fire qi is subtle, its internal attack is powerful, scorching bones and injuring sinews, making blood difficult to restore." This warns that in bodies with Yin deficiency and Fire hyperactivity, fire therapies must absolutely not be used. If moxibustion is mistakenly applied, fire and heat intensify (driving out excess), while Yin blood is further damaged (pursuing deficiency). Although fire qi is subtle, its internal attack is powerful, causing sequelae of bone and tendon damage, hence the repeated statement of the dangers of mis-treatment. Another example: "Taiyang disease, after initially inducing sweat without resolution, and then purging, if the pulse is floating, it does not heal. Floating indicates the pathogen is outside; mistakenly purging prevents healing. Because the pulse is floating, the pathogen is outside; to resolve it, one must release the exterior, and Guizhi Tang is suitable." The first paragraph summarizes the treatment of Taiyang disease: sweating is indicated, purging is contraindicated. Now, after mistaken purging, the exterior syndrome remains, describing the whole process. The second paragraph explains that exterior diseases should be guided by momentum. Pathogens exit from the exterior; purging is set for interior excess syndromes. Inducing sweat but mistakenly purging leads to non-resolution. The third paragraph reiterates that after purging, if the exterior syndrome remains, sweating is still appropriate. This repeatedly emphasizes the importance of resolving exterior diseases from the outside.
5. Transformation: In the Six Channel diseases, after passing through appropriate stages, certain changes occur. Some exterior diseases enter the interior, such as "Blood is weak, Qi is exhausted, pores open, pathogens enter, struggle with healthy Qi, knotting beneath the costal region, healthy and pathogenic Qi contend, alternating chills and fever... Xiao Chai Hu Tang governs it; after taking Chai Hu Tang, if thirst occurs, it belongs to Yangming, treat according to the method." This is Shaoyang transforming into Yangming; naturally, treatment should consider clearing and purging methods based on Yangming syndrome conditions. Light syndromes may transform into critical ones, such as "Shaoyin disease, pulse micro, fine, and deep, desire to sleep, sweating without irritability, spontaneous desire to vomit; by the fifth or sixth day, spontaneous diarrhea, again irritability and inability to sleep: Death." This is Shaoyin Yang deficiency and cold transforming into a critical syndrome due to lack of treatment. Furthermore, for complex exterior-interior cold-heat syndromes, treatment measures should have distinctions in urgency and sequence. For example, "After severe purging in Shanghan, followed by inducing sweat, epigastric痞 (fullness/stuffiness) occurs, and there is aversion to cold; the exterior is not resolved. Do not attack the痞; first resolve the exterior... To resolve the exterior, Guizhi Tang is suitable; to attack the痞, Da Huang Huang Lian Xie Xin Tang is suitable." This is an example of treating the exterior first. Another example: "Shanghan, the physician purged it, continuing with unceasing diarrhea of undigested food, and body pain; urgently save the interior... To save the interior, Si Ni Tang is suitable; to save the exterior, Guizhi Tang is suitable." This is an example of urgently saving the interior. Also, the same syndrome may have different outcomes depending on specific conditions. For example, "Shanghan, little heat and slight cold limbs, fingertips are cold, silent and no desire to eat, irritability; after several days, if urination is frequent and color is white, this means heat is removed; desire to eat indicates recovery. If cold limbs, vomiting, and chest/hypochondriac fullness/irritability occur, subsequently hematochezia will happen." This is Heat-Cold Reversal with two outcomes: one can heal spontaneously; the other involves pathogenic heat penetrating deeply, damaging Yin collaterals, leading to hematochezia. The above examples all belong to the Method of Transformation.
6. Contrast: The Method of Contrast analyzes and compares existing syndrome characteristics using contrasting phrases based on similar pulses and syndromes. For example, "The patient has a rapid pulse; rapidity indicates heat, which should digest food and increase appetite, yet vomiting occurs instead. This is because sweating made Yang Qi slight and Diaphragm Qi deficient, resulting in a rapid pulse. Rapidity here is 'Guest Heat,' unable to digest food; because the Stomach middle is deficient and cold, vomiting occurs." Pulse-disease correlation generally holds that a rapid pulse indicates heat. If Stomach heat presents with a rapid pulse, the syndrome should involve digesting food and increased appetite. Now, after sweating, Middle Yang Qi declines, deficiency-cold worsens, and Yang floats upward, termed 'Guest Heat.' Vomiting due to Stomach deficiency-cold should resemble Taiyang Zang Cold without thirst; although the pulse is rapid, it is obviously forceless, differing naturally from Stomach heat rapid pulse. Another example: "Shanghan with fever, lower abdominal fullness, should present with difficulty urinating. Now, conversely, urination is free; this indicates Blood stasis. Purge it, do not leave any residue; Di Dang Wan is suitable." This uses contrasting phrases, using Lower Abdominal Fullness with Urinary Difficulty (Water Accumulation Syndrome) to illustrate Lower Abdominal Fullness with Free Urination (Blood Accumulation Syndrome); this is the manifestation of the Contrast Method.
7. Parallelism: In certain clauses of the *Shanghan Lun*, comparing two completely opposite pathological locations, natures, and disease trend developments, or similar syndromes with different natures, using comparative phrases for analysis can be called the Method of Parallelism. Specific examples follow.
(1) Yin-Yang Juxtaposition: For example, "Diseases with fever and aversion to cold originate from Yin; diseases without fever and with aversion to cold originate from Yang..." This distinguishes origin from Yang vs. Yin by contrasting fever-with-aversion-to-cold and no-fever-with-aversion-to-cold. Of course, combining other syndrome images to formulate treatment measures would be more precise. Another example: "Disease originating from Yang, mistakenly purged, heat enters and forms Jie Xiong (Chest Binding); disease originating from Yin, mistakenly purged, forms Pi (Epigastric Stuffiness)... "This explains that after mistaken purging of exterior syndrome, if the patient's constitution is relatively solid, Yang heat sinks inward, binding with fluid retention in the chest/diaphragm, forming Jie Xiong, termed 'originating from Yang'; if the patient's Stomach Yang is inherently weak and mistaken purging causes Guest Qi to knot in the epigastrium, gathering into Pi, termed 'originating from Yin'. These two examples are the Yin-Yang Juxtaposition Method.
(2) Exterior-Interior Juxtaposition: For example, "Shanghan, no bowel movement for six or seven days, headache with fever: give Cheng Qi Tang. If urine is clear, know it is not in the interior, but still in the exterior; must induce sweat... Guizhi Tang is suitable." This shows that headache, fever, and constipation have two possibilities: exterior or interior. Treatment for exterior is sweating, for interior is purging. Thus, clarity of urine is cited as the basis for distinguishing exterior-interior syndromes, representing the Exterior-Interior Juxtaposition Method.
(3) Deficiency-Excess Juxtaposition: For example, "After inducing sweat, disease unresolved, conversely aversion to cold: this is due to deficiency; no aversion to cold, only heat: this is excess; harmonize Stomach Qi, give Tiao Wei Cheng Qi Tang." This is the same post-sweat state, but due to different constitutions, the pathology differs in deficiency vs. excess. Post-sweat aversion to cold mostly belongs to Shaoyin Deficiency-Cold; no aversion to cold but only heat mostly belongs to Yangming Excess-Heat. Thus, giving Tiao Wei Cheng Qi Tang to harmonize Stomach Qi represents the Deficiency-Excess Juxtaposition Method.
(4) Cold-Heat Juxtaposition: Clauses in the *Shanghan Lun* that juxtapose each other also fall under the category of Parallelism. For example, "Spontaneous diarrhea without thirst belongs to Taiyin, because the Zang has cold; warm it, suitable to take Si Ni class formulas." "Diarrhea, desiring to drink water, because there is heat; Bai Tou Weng Tang governs it." One belongs to Taiyin Zang Cold, so spontaneous diarrhea without thirst; treatment is warming, main formulas include Li Zhong or Si Ni classes. One belongs to Jueyin Heat Diarrhea, so diarrhea with thirst and desire to drink; treatment focuses on directly clearing interior heat with Bai Tou Weng Tang. Another example: "Abdominal fullness does not decrease, even if it decreases slightly, it is negligible; purge it, Da Cheng Qi Tang is suitable." This contrasts with *Jingui Yaolue*: "Abdominal fullness decreases intermittently, then returns as before, this is cold, give warming medicines" (*Abdominal Fullness, Cold Cramps, Retained Food Disease Chapter*). The syndromes are similar. But one is Excess-Heat, the other Deficiency-Cold, with entirely different natures, thus different treatments. Juxtaposing these two allows mutual reference and comparison.
8. Depiction: Ancients often used reduplicated characters to describe the demeanor of nature and people. Liu Xie said: "Zhuozhuo depicts the freshness of peach blossoms, Yiyi exhausts the appearance of willows, Gaogao is the countenance of sunrise, Lulu simulates the shape of rain and snow, Jiejie chases the sound of yellow birds, Yingying learns the rhythm of grass insects... using few words to summarize many, leaving no omission in emotion and appearance." (*Wenxin Diaolong: Wuse Pian*) Song Dynasty poet Lu You wrote: "Dark river clouds, Guba rain, rustling leaves, Shicheng autumn." (*Ascending Shuangxin Pavilion Poem*) These likely belong to the same category. Zhongjing used reduplicated characters to depict the state of diseases, such as "Sese aversion to cold": Se, *Yupian* explains as "stingy/greedy". *I Ching: Shua Zhuan* also has the meaning of "avarice". The *Shanghan Lun* doubles the character Sese to depict Wind-Cold attacking the Taiyang muscle surface, where Defensive Yang Qi cannot stretch, presenting this hunched, shrinking posture fearing wind and cold.
"Xixi aversion to wind": Xi, *Shuowen* explains as "rinsing rice". *Mengzi*: "Walking xixi." Xiahou Xiaoruo's *Cold Snow Rhapsody* has "Gathering heavy hail, xili"; later generations used xili for the sound of wind and rain, all extending from Xu Shen's explanation. Xixi aversion to wind, when Wind Pathogen attacks muscle layers, Defensive exterior is disharmonious, seeing wind suddenly biting, hair follicles contract, hence this descriptive term.
"Xixi fever": *Shuowen* explains Xi as "rising". *Erya: Shi Gu* says Xi means "joining". Like birds joining feathers, a light, shallow joining appearance. Xixi fever, as Fang Zhongxing said, "The heat sign is slight, like heating with a covered fire; Xi implies warmth but not steaming great heat."
"Si Si slight sweat is good": *Jiyun* explains "Si, appearance of sweating, or Si Si continuous light rain". Zhongjing uses Si Si to depict after taking Guizhi Tang, Healthy Qi wins, Pathogen retreats, whole body is warm and moist, slight sweat resolves disease. Without sweat, pathogen has no exit; excessive sweating risks damaging Yang Qi and Yin Fluids. This word Si Si is apt and vivid.
"Neck and back stiffness (Qiang Ji)": Pronounced Shu, *Shuowen* explains as "bird's short feathers". Pictograph, depicting a short-feathered bird wanting to fly but unable to stretch. This borrows to explain neck/back stiffness, also a depiction term. Ming dynasty scholars interpreted it as a table edge, implying restraint, which has basis. But the character lacks hooks; I believe following the majority pronunciation 'Shu' is correct.
"Han Han sweating": *Pican* explains Han as "water flowing out". Also swift appearance, Cao Zhi's *Seven Revelations* has "Han Han ducks diving". Zhongjing uses Han Han sweating or Han Han Han sweating to depict Yangming high fever, also what Cheng Jiaoqian called continuous, unceasing sweating.